Analytical studies on medieval lead ingots from Wroc?aw and Kraków (Poland): a step towards understanding bulk trade of lead from Kraków and Silesia Upland Pb–Zn deposits

Abstract Origins of medieval lead artefacts are hard to establish due re-smelting and mixing. One can obtain conclusive evidence from ingots that served for bulk trade originated directly the mines. This paper aims analyse thirteenth century ingot Wroc?aw (Poland). To its origins we analysed structure chemical composition. We used archaeometric methods: light electron microscopic observations, X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, diffraction, infrared spectroscopy, inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry Pb isotopic analysis. compared our measurements with analogical found on Kraków Market Square a database ores Europe Middle East. The research indicated both -Kraków Silesia Upland Pb–Zn ore deposits (Poland), intensively mined twelfth century. results complement view routes established based written records add valuable data future comparative studies.